Unit 1: newspapers
 
News
Life appears to be a shapeless jumble of events. Journalists each day structure this chaos, so that the public receives it sorted out and neatly packaged into stories, the same day on the radio, television or online and the next day in newspapers. But, how do journalists decide what is news and what is not? How do they distinguish between a big news story and a small one? For example, which do you think is more interesting?
a) A girl going to primary school, to high school, or to university?
b) A man aged 25 marrying a girl aged 20, or a man aged 55 marrying a girl aged 15?
c) A car killing a chicken, a pig or a child
Every one of these events might be news for the community in which it happens, but some are more newsworthy than others.
You very likely answered that the most interesting things were a girl going to university, a man aged 55 marrying a girl aged 15, and a car killing a child. If your answer was different, though, it does not necessarily mean that you were wrong.
The criteria by which news is judged are:
Is it new?
Is it unusual?
Is it interesting or significant?
Is it about people?
 
If it is not new, it cannot be news. The execution of former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein is unusual, interesting, significant and about people, but it cannot possibly be reported in tomorrow's papers because it is not new. If some facts about that execution became known for the first time, however, that would be news. The assassination would not be new, but the information would be.
Events which happened days or even weeks earlier can still be news, as long as they have not been reported before. If a newspaper is telling a story for the first time, it is new to the readers or listeners and therefore it is news. News of the death of Mao, for instance, was not released to the world by the Chinese government for several days; when they did release it, however, it was still very definitely news.
 
Newspapers
Though the term 'newspaper' leaves the impression that it contains only news, a typical English newspaper, in addition to news, contains other matter which may not be strictly defined as news: editorials, personal and syndicated columns, letters to the editor, lifestyle, comic strips and cartoons, cross-word puzzles, horoscopes, classified ads, recipes, etc.
Despite the advent of such powerful rival forms of mass media as television and the radio, and more recently the internet, the newspaper still remains a powerful source of news and information and serves as an influential medium in keeping people informed about what is happening in the world and, thereby, in extending their knowledge and deepening their understanding.
Newspapers vary in terms of circulation. Circulation is the total number of copies of a newspaper distributed to subscribers and vendors in one day. Some newspapers are nationally published and have a large circulation; some are published locally with a small circulation.
Newspapers publish with varying frequency. Some newspapers come out twice a week, once a week, once a month, four times a year, or even less often. However, most newspapers are dailies, i.e. they publish every day.
The copies of a newspaper published in a single day are referred to as that day's issue. For example, the newspaper copies published on June 2 are referred to as June 2's issue. Furthermore, in a single day, a newspaper may be published more than once, e.g. once in the morning and once in the afternoon. The copies published for a specific time of the day is referred to as that time's edition, e.g. "Morning Edition", or "Evening Edition". Daily newspapers print at least one edition every weekday. Morning editions, printed in the predawn hours, cover newsworthy events of the previous day. Evening editions are printed in the afternoon and include information about events that happened earlier that day. Most dailies also offer a larger weekend edition.
 
News Production
News production is a staged process in which several people are involved. The first stage starts with the journalist/reporter. Using many input sources, the journalist/reporter produces a story on an event (each news article covering an event is called a news story). He gathers up scattered pieces of information and weaves them into one text, i.e. the news story. The story produced then goes to the editors and undergoes editing. Editing allows an independent expert to assess the content and style and spot the problems the journalist/reporter may have missed. The editors' profession is cutting and modifying the story. To improve the story and increase its news value, the editors may make some changes in the text of the story. For example, they may delete some information as some (background) information, substitute some words for others change the grammatical structure of some sentences, and so on. The final text then goes to a second group of editors. They are superfluous, add responsible for the prominence the story receives in the newspaper and how it is displayed. This group of editors write headlines for news stories, decide on the visual means and devices used in the newspaper, provide captions to the photographs, determine the layout of the newspaper pages and the position of news stories an other items on those pages, select the proper style and size of typeface, and so on.
All news stories, once written, are edited and put in special places in the newspaper. Whether they are published, the length, the prominence, the position on the page, and whether or not pictures appear with them will depend on their importance compared with other news stories to be printed the same day.
 
News Presentation
Newspapers present news through three kinds of codes: linguistic, typographic, and graphic (code here refers to any kind of system which may be employed for communication). The linguistic code refers to the linguistic signs, i.e. words, phrases, sentences used to convey the meaning, both denotative and connotative, of news stories to the reader. The typographic code refers to typographic devices such as the size and type of font or style of letters (bold, italic, italic bold) used in printing news stories, and the graphic code is meant here to be the photographs, paintings, charts, graphs, etc. which accompany news stories. Given the fact that a growing amount of space is being given to visual images in newspapers, the graphic code need a little elaboration here.
A photo is a medium of recording reality and there are some features affecting the meaning conveyed by it. These include: photo position and size, camera angle of view, gaze direction and facial expression. Each of these features communicates a different meaning and elicits a different response from the reader.
The shot size used in a photo is one of the most obvious factors affecting the meaning of the image. Basically, the size of a photo ranges from a close-up (a shot that shows a character's face in great detail so that it fills the screen or the frame) to a long shot (showing all or most of a fairly large subject, e.g. a person, and usually much of the surroundings). The closer a shot is to an object or a person, the more intimate the viewer/reader is to the object or the person, and the more private the view.
 
The angle of the shot also conveys specific meanings to the viewer. The alternatives here are: high angle (looking down on a person from above) is interpreted as making that person look small, insignificant, unlikely to win, vulnerable, helpless (connoting weakness); low angle (looking at a person from a position lower than the person) is interpreted to make that person look powerful, superior, important, likely to win, and in control (connoting power and authority); and eye-level angle (looking at a person from a position on the same level with the person, neither higher nor lower) is interpreted to connote equality.
Gaze directions and facial expressions of people in photos carry specific connotations. It makes a difference whether the person in the photo is looking in the camera and smiling or looking away from the camera with a reflective pose. Pictures can make a person, a group, or a political party look good, bad, selfish, silly, cruel etc. Which photos a newspaper chooses to use can heavily influence the public's perception of a person or an event.
To elaborate on the issue, we choose two news stories and analyze the three codes used in presenting the stories. The first story is on the murder of a policewoman by a criminal. As regards the typographic code, the story starts with a headline, which has been printed in big-sized typeface to attract the readers' attention to the topic of the story. Bold and big-sized subheadings are also employed to break up the text of the story and direct the reader in making meaning of the text as well as to make clear the points that the newspaper thinks to be of particular significance to the understanding of the news story.
As for the linguistic code, the story begins with a headline reading "SCANDAL OF PSYCHO FREED TO KILL HERO COP NINA." The headline provides a framework on which to build the meaning of the news story. The story uses orally based vocabulary as well as dramatic and sensational language. This can be seen in the first sentence of the news story that reads "A violent cop-hating nut killed brave WPC Nina Mackey after a catastrophic catalogue by Crown prosecutors and police allowed him to roam free." The story also employs alliteration for emphasis as in "catastrophic catalogue" and "scandal of psycho." The colloquial vocabulary items (e.g. cop) used in the story connote familiarity and informality. The story implies familiarity with the victim (Nina Mackey), who is referred to throughout the story as 'Nina' (the alternatives could be her full name or her professional capacity) where as a distance is created between the reader and the killer, who is referred to throughout the story by his surname, Elgizouli. This strategy of distancing the reader from the criminal encourages the reader to have no sympathy with the killer.
As for the use of photos in the news story, two photographs of the killer and the killed have been placed on the upper part of the front page to attract the readers' attention. The size of the photographs of the individuals differs considerably with the killer being represented as significantly bigger than the killed. This bigger size connotes dangerousness and frightfulness of the killer. The photograph of the police officer in her uniform suggests her being a public servant. Also, the police officer's photo is presented in a photograph-like oval frame, which connotes sentimentality, and elevates her position in comparison to the killer. The emotionalism is carried over into the other picture run by the newspaper, which shows the coffin of the police officer carried by her colleagues.
Finally, regarding the gaze directions of the two people the newspaper runs a photo of the offender looking away from the camera. The connotations of the photo would change if the offender was looking directly at the camera and smiling; instead he is pictured Newspapers looking away from the camera with a blank expression connoting arrogance, cold-bloodedness and lack of emotion.
The second story is about the Hollywood actress Cameron Diaz suffering from a skin problem. The story is a product of paparazzi photography. The name 'paparazzo meaning an intrusive photographer was first used in 1960 in Federico Fellini's film La Dolce Vita. Since then, it has been deployed to designate both the impertinent photographer who takes pictures of celebrities at official occasions, as well as the 'stalker' who, armed with a bazooka- like long-lens camera, follows every move of a famous person trying to take shots of him or her in a private or intimate situation. The most distinctive feature of these photos is that the famous people portrayed in them did not pose since they were completely unaware that a picture was being taken. As a result, paparazzi photographs are usually in sharp contrast to the official posed photographs of celebrities.
In order to mark the contrast between the private self and the public appearance of the celebrity, paparazzi photographs are conventionally juxtaposed with official images of celebrities or with the images of the characters they play in, for example, soap operas. Therefore, many stories containing huge shots of celebrities taken by a paparazzi photographer provide also a small-sized posed portrait for comparison. Sometimes, however, the very discrepancy between paparazzi pictures and 'official' photographs might be the main or even sole subject of a news article.
As for the typographic code, the story is headed by a big headline taking up the whole width of the page. Below the pictures there is a sub-headline giving more explanation about the story.
As regards the linguistic code, this story, too, uses dramatic and sensational language. Stylistic devices are employed in the headlines to create special effects (see Unit 2 for more on special effects). The main headline employs intertextuality making a reference to the title of the movie Mask in which Diaz starred. The sub-headline employs alliteration (... beauty is battling ...) and metaphorization (the beauty is battling, i.e. fighting a war against an enemy, the skin problem) to attract attention and emphasize the seriousness of the problem.
As for the graphic code, there are three pictures used for the story. The close-up picture is a paparazzi photograph. It shows her without make-up; she has red spots on her face and does not even look very fresh. The picture is matched with two similarly framed glamour pictures of her, and thus, highlights the difference between the paparazzi and posed pictures. The juxtaposition of the pictures of Diaz wearing make-up and without reveals an interesting fact. The sharp contrast between the real (private) self of Diaz and Hollywood version of her is the sole concern of this juxta -position. These photographs perfectly illustrate the newspaper's attempt to, literally, tear down, the public façade of the celebrity and expose her real self.
Codes sometimes work in conjunction with each other to convey meaning or present information. A story about a plane crash used the headline AND THEY ALL LIVED. This only carries meaning because it was accompanied by a picture of the crashed plane. In the front page on the next page see how the linguistic code works in conjunction with the graphic code as well as the typographic code (note the big headline set against a black background to attract attention).
 
Types of Newspapers
Newspapers are divided into two types: broadsheets (or broadsheet newspapers) are large-sized newspapers, and are printed on a size of paper known as broadsheet, hence this term. They are sometimes referred to as the qualities, or the heaviest (referring to the weekend editions of certain broadsheets which contain so many pages that they are physically quite heavy to carry). Broadsheets are considered to be informative and objective, keeping news and opinion or comment firmly apart. Aimed at higher social groups, broadsheets are often more intellectual in content than their tabloid counterparts, examining stories in more depth and carrying sensationalist and celebrity stories less often. They present the reader with serious news, which is supported with detailed and informed analysis and comment on economic, political, social, and Broadsheets have plainer layout (little color on the front page and smaller typeface) and smaller pictures. Such newspapers in Britain include The Times, the Guardian, the Independent, and the Daily Telegraph, and in the U.S. the New York Times, the Washington Post, and the USA Today.
Tabloids (or tabloid newspapers) are newspapers whose are about half the size of broadsheet newspapers. They are sometimes referred to as the popular newspapers and far exceed the broadsheets in their sales. Typically, tabloids have colorful front pages with many photographs, and attention-grabbing, appealing, shocking, and often very big headlines, sometimes taking up more than half of the front page. They mostly focus on sensational stories, often concerning crime, sex, and scandal involving prominent figures, celebrities, and personalities in the public eye. Aimed at lower social groups, tabloids are considered to be more entertaining than informative in terms of news coverage, so much so that tabloid is frequently used in a pejorative sense when talking about the press collectively. Such newspapers in Britain include the Sun, the Daily Mirror, and the Daily Star, and in the U.S. New York Post, Daily News, and Boston Herald. The following are tabloid news stories.
 
Types of news
News is basically divided into two types: hard news and soft news. Hard news generally refers to news articles covering serious and significant events such as crimes, disasters, wars, etc. Hard news stories may report local, national or international events and cover different topics such as politics, business, sport, health, etc.
Soft News, on the other hand, refers to amusing, light-hearted, less serious articles intended to entertain, inform, or instruct readers on things they will enjoy.
 
The Front Page
The first page of a newspaper is called the front page. It is the most important page of a newspaper and plays a very significant role in its success since it is the page people see first when they see the newspaper. It can be regarded as the showcase of a newspaper. It sells the newspaper to the people in much the same way as a department store windows sell its merchandise to passers-by.
The newspaper editors are well aware of the importance of the front page, and they select and arrange the information on the front page very carefully. They exercise great discretion in their placement of stories and place the news they consider most important or most likely to sell the newspaper on the top half of the front page. Attention-getting and impressive headlines usually accompany these stories. The editors also use visual effects, typographical devices, i.e. different typefaces and font sizes, and impressive photographs to make the front page as attractive as possible.
Newspapers' editors use different page layouts and arrangements for their newspapers' front pages. In fact, the front page is a newspaper's opportunity to stamp its individuality among other newspapers, However, there are some features shared by the front pages of almost all newspapers.
First, the front page is a précis of the whole newspaper and summarizes the main stories to be found on the inside pages. These stories usually appear partially, and less often in full, on the front page. The reason for this is that there is not enough space for all the major stories to be fully placed on the front page. The common practice is, therefore, to start stories on the front page (to attract people) and then continue them on inside pages.
Second, almost all front pages carry a lead story. To the editors of a newspaper, one of the stories on the front page is more important than others. This story is called the lead story. The lead story is often indicated by heavier, larger headline type than those used for other stories, and is usually accompanied by a photo.
Third, since photographs are informative and attractive devices for wining people's attention, the front page always carries a few photographs which relate to front page stories, specially the lead story. Forth, the front page usually contains hard news stories, i.e. breaking stories having occurred since the previous issue of the newspaper, and soft news stories appear on the front page less often.
The analysis of a newspaper's front page reveals to us a lot of information about the culture, interests, and values of the country in which the newspaper is published. It also provides us with some clues as to the newspaper's political and social orientation. For instance, the news stories selected for the front page, specially the one selected as the lead story, the way they are headlined, the pictures accompanying the news stories, the page lay-out, etc. are all indicators of the newspaper's editors and owners' possible party affiliation or political stance, the approach they take toward social matters, the values they stand up for, and so on.
 
The Structure of a News Story
Different types of texts vary in terms of, among other things, organization or the way they present information. For example, the following structure is used when writing a personal letter:
 
Salutation           the greeting to the reader
Body                    the message of the letter
Closing                 taking leave of the reader
 
The writer starts his letter with such expressions as 'Dear sir, 'Dear Mary' etc. Then he goes to the main purpose for which he is writing the letter. Finally, he would close his letter by such expressions as 'Truly Yours', 'Yours', 'Love', etc.
To write a research paper, the writer would not start his paper with a salutation, i.e. to address the readers as 'Dear sirs', 'Dear students', etc. Rather, he would start his paper with an abstract or summary of his study, then he would write an introduction to the topic under investigation, and then he would review the literature, Le. discussing the previous research that is relevant to the study, and so on.
Likewise, a special structure is used for writing short stories, prayers, scientific papers, political speeches, etc. These differences in structure and organization have been well established over time and are often adhered to in writing.
The news story, too, has its own structure or way of presenting information. Over time and through experience journalists and news writers have found the optimal structure for the news stories they write, one most in keeping with the tempo and needs of our time.
Unlike a normal story that starts at its eginning and proceeds step by step to its coclusion, a reporter starts his news story with its climax, that is, he includes the most important facts in the lead paragraph. He summarizes the story at the beginning and then in the next paragraphs retells the story in greater detail. These characteristics give the news story its unique structure and shape.
In general, a news story as it strikes our eyes on the newspaper page can be divided into three parts:
The headline
The lead paragraph
The Body of the story
The next three units cover each part in detail.